'Differentiated Instruction and differentiated assessment serving as teaching aids in an inclusive classroom' by Dr Theodora Papadopoulou

Differentiated Instruction and differentiated assessment serving as teaching aids in an inclusive classroom

“…differentiation can show us how to teach the same standard to a range of

learners by employing a variety of teaching and learning modes.”                                                                                                                    

                                                                                                (Tomlinson 2000)

Differentiated instruction is an approach to teaching and organizing a classroom that respects each learner and provides a variety of learning opportunities. All students can meet success since it enables them to access information through multiple paths, understand it deeply and produce an effective output. Tomlinson (2005), defines differentiated instruction as a philosophy of teaching that is based on the premise that students learn best when their teachers accommodate the differences in their readiness levels, interests and learning profiles. A main objective of differentiated instruction is to take full advantage of every student’s ability to learn (Tomlinson, 2001a, 2001c, 2004c, 2005).

She also points out that differentiating can be performed in a variety of ways. Tomlinson (2000) argues that differentiation is not just an instructional strategy, nor is it a recipe for teaching. It is an innovative way of thinking about teaching and learning.

According to Tomlinson (2003), there are four areas in which differentiation can occur:

1. the learning environment
2. the content of the curriculum,
3. the process through which children engage in the learning activities,

and

4. the product or demonstration of what has been learned.

The learning environment includes the overall layout of the classroom and the way the classroom space is used.  All these alterations ensure that the classroom is a supportive and comfortable place that helps all students enjoy learning in a welcoming environment. Regarding the process of instruction and students’ interaction, it may involve collaborative learning activities, tiered assignments, learning centres, learning logs, individual goal-setting, changing the pace or delivery of instruction, and using visual and verbal cueing. Last but not least it involves allowing different students to work at different speeds.

It should be noted that curriculum differentiation is determined by the students’ readiness level, interests, and learning profile.

Planning for differentiated instruction involves making informed decisions about the learning environment, determining instructional time, designing appropriate content, materials and resources and finally implementing instructional strategies and evaluating procedures. All these make differentiated instruction a proactive, flexible and student-centered approach.

We should bear in mind that differentiated instruction is an umbrella concept. It incorporates research results on the brain (Greenleaf, 2003), learning styles, multiple intelligences, constructivism, and differentiated assessment into practice in the classroom.

‘Flexibility’ is the key word in a differentiated classroom. The curriculum is followed in a variety of instructional strategies. Every student is engaged in the same general content while interacting with the learning goal at his/her own pace. The differentiated classroom teacher acts as a coach, guiding the learning process and monitoring students’ progress by offering guidance and support.  The teacher works with students individually or in small groups.

Differentiated instruction respects each student as a learner. This requires knowing each student’s interests, strengths, and academic challenges. Another important part of differentiated instruction is that it takes into account that students learn differently. Therefore, they need a variety of guidance and support (Chapman, C. & Gregory, G.H., 2007) 

By implementing differentiated instruction, all learners are helped to reach their potential.

Differentiated assessment is a process of evaluation where the teacher collects information and data before, during, and after instruction. This process ensures success for all the students. It enables the teacher to have an overall view of students’ achievement. It is important that the assessment is authentic since it offers students a variety of tasks to prove their knowledge (Chapman & King, 2012). Differentiated assessment supports the learning process since it helps teachers identify and begin to address students’ strengths and needs. It is ongoing and responsive process that changes over the course of a unit in response to students’ growth and development. It serves multiple purposes:

a.      assessment for instructional planning,

b.      assessment for learning and

c.       assessment of  learning.

Differentiated instruction and differentiated assessment meet the principles of special education since individualised teaching is incorporated in group teaching in a mixed ability classroom. Every student’s learning needs are taken into account and act as an initial point in the adaptation of the curriculum (Bender, W.N., 2002). Students learn to appreciate differentiation, learn at their own pace and understand through practice that one student’s output can be another student’s input (Benati, 2005).

Every student has a range of abilities, needs and interests. Differentiated instruction is any instructional strategy that recognizes and supports individual differences in learning. It maximizes learning by taking into consideration each student’s’ individual and cultural learning styles. It respects the fact that some students may require adjusted instruction and offers different ways for students to explore curriculum. Differentiated instruction facilitates learning since it helps teachers create learning situations that match students’ current abilities and preferred learning styles while stretching their abilities and encouraging them to experience new ways of learning. 

It provides both teachers and students with unique teaching and learning experiences. What reassures the success of such teaching approach is, apart from knowledge, the belief that every student is a potentially successful one who seeks opportunities to develop his/her abilities.

References

Beecher, M., & Sweeny, S. (2008, March 1). Closing the Achievement Gap with Curriculum Enrichment and Differentiation: One School's Story. Journal of Advanced Academics, 19(3), 502-530.

Benati, A. (2005).The effects of processing instruction, Traditional instruction and meaning-output instruction On the acquisition of the English past  simple tense. Language Teaching Research, 9, 67-93.

Bender W. N., & Larkin, M. J. (2003). Reading strategies for elementary

students with learning difficulties. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Brooks, J. G. (2004). To see beyond the lesson. Educational Leadership, 62(1), 8-12.

Chapman, C. & Gregory, G.H., (2007) Differentiated instructional strategies: One size doesn't fit all, second edition. Thousand Oaks. California: Corwin Press.

Chapman, C. & King, R., (2012). Differentiated assessment strategies: One tool doesn’t fit all, second edition. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

Douglas, D. (2004). Self-advocacy: Encouraging students to become partners in differentiation. Roeper Review, 26, 223-227.

Flem, A., Moen, T., and Gudmundsdottir, S. (2000). Towards inclusive schools: a study of how a teacher facilitated differentiated instruction. Paper presented at the ECER Conference, Edinburgh.

Forsten, C., Grant, J., and Hollas, B. (2002). Differentiated Instruction. Different Strategies for Different Learners. Peterborough: Crystal Springs Books.

Greenleaf, R. (2003). The servant leader within: A transformative path. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press.

Lawrence-Brown, D. (2004). Differentiated instruction: Inclusive strategies for standards based learning that benefit the whole class. American Secondary Education, 32(3), 34-62.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2000a). The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of all Learners. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2000b). Reconciliable differences. Educational Leadership, 58(1), 6-11.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001b). Grading for success. Educational Leadership, 58(6), 12-15.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001c). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed Ability Classrooms (2^nd ed.). Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2002). Different learners different lessons. Instructor, 112(2), 21-25.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2003). Deciding to teach them all. Educational Leadership, 61(2), 6-11.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2004a). Differentiation in diverse settings. School Administrator, 61(7), 28-33.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2004b). Research evidence for differentiation. School Administrator, 61(7), 30.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2004c). Sharing responsibility for differentiating instruction. Roeper Review, 26(4), 188-200.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2005). Grading and differentiation: Paradox or good practice? Theory into Practice, 44(3), 262-269.

International Publishers 2014

Building Resilience to cope with the Teaching Challenges

by Dr. Theodora Papadopoulou

The new academic year is flirting us and another educational trip is about to begin for both teachers and students. The excitement and desire for exploration is also accompanied by the anxiety of reaching the high expectations that all parties have set for themselves.

Younger students are eager to have a great time with their peers in a safe school environment that offers unconditional support every time they need it whereas older ones remain focused on successfully passing the exams and receiving the certificates they so eagerly want.

Both parents and teachers seek ways to increase students’ commitment to their goals without leading them to emotional and psychical burn out. What is worth considering though is that educators and most particularly the new ones, are also threatened by physical and emotion exhaustion. The aim of this article is to identify how internal strengths and external strategies promote teacher resilience.

It is very important to sustain the teachers’ commitment and reduce teacher s’ attrition throughout the academic year.

Let’s start by exploring the resilience process for every individual. According to Richardson, Neiger, Jensen and Kumpfer (1990), the resilient process is a function of conscious or unconscious choice. It is explained as an interaction with the environment and making a choice to reintegrate with resilience back to a state of stability or to continue in a state of uncertainty. This means that people have a choice -consciously or unconsciously- of how their reactions to the various disruptions of life will shape their future. The coping process or “resilience” could result in growth, knowledge and self- understanding or possibly not.

Masten (1994) underlines that the term “resiliency” carries the implication of a

personality trait. We should bear in mind that the conceptions regarding resilience as a process are emerging from various scientific fields such as psychiatry, psychology and sociology. The idea of resilience as a process, that people can learn to bounce back from negative life experiences, is a fairly new approach. It challenges people and educators in particular to focus on strengths instead of deficits.

Many of us keep wondering whether all individuals are able to engage themselves into a resilience building process.

It seems that when an individual of any age encounters adversity, he/she

experiences individual and environmental protective aspects that buffer against adversity.

With enough “protection”, the individual adapts to that adversity without experiencing a significant disruption in his/her life (Silliman, 1998).

The individual stays within a comfort zone or moves to a level of increased

resilience because of the emotional strength and healthy coping mechanisms developed in the process of overcoming the adversity. It should be noted that without the necessary protection, an individual may go through a process of psychological disruption. It is well known that stress evokes tension. Thus, the psychological changes that accompany stress reactions lead to a disruption in life (Flach, 1997). Over time the individual incorporates the processes from that disruption. The availability though of personal and environmental protective factors may govern the type of behaviours incorporated. Richardson et al., 1990, believe that positive or negative behaviour assimilation is just the process of life.

The resilient individual, throughout the various stages of life, develops problem solving skills. That means that resilient people are aware of how to find and use information to solve problems. When they face various  difficulties in life, they employ a problem solving model in order to determine alternatives for dealing with their dilemma (Jones, 2003).

According to Wolin and Wolin (1993), internal resiliencies are: initiative, independence, insight, relationship, humour, creativity, and morality.

Henderson and Milstein (2003) indicate there are also individual internal

protective practices that promote resiliency-facilitating behaviours.

These behaviours are:

• Gives of self in service to others and /or a cause

• Uses life skills, including good decision making, assertiveness, impulse

    control, and problem solving

• Has ability to be a friend, ability to form positive relationships

• Has sense of humour

• Has self discipline

• Has independence

• Has positive view of personal future

• Has flexibility

• Has capacity for and connection to learning

• Has self-motivation

• Has personal competence, is “good at something”

• Has feelings of self-worth and self-confidence

An understanding of how adults exposed to both personal and work-related

stress bounce back is a relatively new but very interesting field of study. It is proved though that the process of resilience building in adults is similar to the one for children (Richardson et al., 1990).  Benard (1991) characterizes resilient children as socially competent, with life skills such as problem solving, critical thinking and the ability to take initiative. Resilient children usually have special interests, goal directedness and motivation to achieve in both school and in life (Benard, 1991).

Higgins (1994) characterizes resilient adults similarly. According to Maddi and Khoshaba (2005) resilience could be learned in adulthood. They state that resilience is not just an ability one is born with, but something all people can learn and improve. This, of course, opens a new window to the role of parents, educators and society itself.

There are six consistent strategy themes -bonding, boundaries, life skills, support, high expectations, and meaningful opportunities- that show how schools as well as families and communities can provide both the environmental protective factors and the conditions that foster individual protective factors. Educational organisations of all kinds must have practices that operate to build resilience by enhancing a sense of inner self, which in turn allows the individual to build the skills needed for engagement with the outer world (Robinson, 2000).

The question is whether the beginning teacher who faces situational hazards is able to build resilience. Traits such as good self-esteem, adaptability and achievement goals do act as buffering strategies.

Another equally important factor that helps teachers to build resilience is the positive feedback and relationships that they receive and build with students, parents, and fellow colleagues. The relationship support that teachers receive helps them build a sources of confidence, motivation, and self-efficacy. (Milner, 2002).

The feeling of being an effective educator is being challenged by multiple factors. All educators, and most particularly EFL teachers, face serious challenges throughout the academic year.  Not only do they have to work long hours including out of school preparation and the creation of extra curriculum  material in order to make their lessons appealing and effective to students, but also cope with all they types of difficulties students may encounter. Learning differences, cultural diversities and negative learning and personal experiences are some of the challenges that educators have to successfully cope with.  What is more, they must successfully cooperate and communicate with colleagues and parents. For all the reasons mentioned above, they should build strong resilience in order to sustain their passion and desire for work even in a  not very fruitful work environment.

Since for some researchers, resilience is no longer considered an innate trait, but a process that happens through an interaction between the individual and the environment, it would be wise to encourage teachers to take ownership of their behaviour and become more resilient in order to avoid burn out. The obstacles will never cease to exist in any field and the chaotic nature of life is definitely going to continue.

Teachers need to develop strategies for resilience in order to enable themselves to thrive in difficult environments and continue being role models for their students. On top of everything, we should not forget that resilient teachers  can  create resilient students both in school and in life.

References

Benard, B. (1991). Fostering resiliency in kids: Protective factors in the family, school, and community. San Francisco: Western Regional Educational Laboratory.

Flach, F. (1997). Resilience: The power to bounce back when the going gets tough! New York: Hatherleigh Press.

Jones, J. (2003). Building resiliency. Retrieved in August, 2011 from

http://www.askdrjami.org/resiliency/resiliency.html.

Johnson, S. (2006). The workplace matters: Teacher quality, retention, and effectiveness. Washington DC: National Education Association.

Maddi, S.R., & Khoshaba, D.M (2005). Resilience at work. New York: AMACOM. American Management Association.

Milstein, M.M., & Farkas, J. (1988). The overstated case of educator stress. Journal of Educational Administration, 26, 232-249.

Wolin, S.J. (2004). Presenting a resilience paradigm for teachers. In H.Waxman, Y. Padron, & J. Gray (Ed). Educational resiliency: Student, teacher, and school perspectives (pp. 189-204). Greenwich, C: Information Age Publishing.