Εισαγωγή στη Δυσλεξία

The use of NLP techniques in the ESL Classroom

The use of NLP techniques in the ESL Classroom

Dr Theodora Papadopoulou

PhD in Psychology

MA in Neurolinguistics, MA in Speech and Language Pathology

theodora.papadopoulou@gmail.com

Neuro-linguistic Programming (NLP) was developed in the USA at the University of California at Santa Cruz in the 1970's.  The title of NLP was given by its founders, Bandler and Grinder (1975a) and it refers to purported systematic, cybernetic links between a person's internal experience (neuro), their language (linguistic) and their patterns of behaviour (programming).  NLP is a form of modelling that aims to the systematic and detailed understanding of people's subjective experience. Ever since, NLP has achieved popularity as a method for communication and personal development. It is often used by professionals such as practitioners, sales people, market researchers, counsellors, consultants, educators, lawyers etc.

NLP is being applied in UK education through the UK NLP network named NLPEdNet.  Additionally, NLP is considered to be a recognised mode of psychotherapy in the UK, accredited by the UK Council for Psychotherapy.

NLP practitioners support the view that a human person is a whole mind-body system with patterned connections between internal experience (`neuro'), language (`linguistic') and behaviour (`programming')

It has been promoted as `the art of communication excellence', or `the study of the structure of subjective experience' (McWhirter 1992). Although NLP is identified as a mode of psychotherapy in its own right, it was initially offered as a method of identifying the effective aspects of existing models of communication for pragmatic purposes. NLP, as a practice, is influenced from a wide variety of fields such as Gestalt therapy (Perls 1969), person-centred counselling (Rogers 1983), transformational grammar (Grinder and Elgin 1973), behavioural psychology, cybernetics (Ashby 1965), Ericksonian hypnotherapy (Bandler and Grinder 1975b; Grinder et al 1977), and the cybernetic epistemology of Gregory Bateson (Bateson 1972). The theory of NLP has been developed and the `new code' NLP (DeLozier and Grinder 1987) focuses on a more holistic - whole body-mind- approach. NLP has also applications at the level of technique in education and training (Lyall 2002). What lies behind these applications is the belief that the teacher- learner relationship is a cybernetic loop, a dynamic process in which meaning is constructed through reciprocal feedback. According to the NLP theory, people act according to the way they understand and represent the world and not according to the way the world `is'. It is also important to study the ways in which people represent the world internally through sensory imagery (visual, auditory and kinaesthetic) and language. NLP focuses on the way internal representations are structured in an individual. The structure of internal representation is unique to every individual. NLP supports the belief that there are systematic relationships between this structuring and a person’s language and behaviour. A learner's internal representations as well as the way they process them are reflected both in their language and their external behaviour. According to NLP, learning is a process through which such representations and sequences are acquired and modified and since skills have corresponding sequences of internal representation, they are all learnt. A person’s ability to learn new things is highly influenced both by their neuro-physiological `state' and by their beliefs about learning as well as about themselves as learners. However, these beliefs are learnt and are susceptible to change. These changes are achieved through communication between the teacher and learner. This communication can be through verbal and non-verbal channels, consciously as well as unconsciously. It is worth stating that all forms of communication influence leaning. A teachers' language and behaviour influence learners on two different levels. These are the learners’ understanding of the topic in question as well as their beliefs about the world (that is about ‘learning’). According to NLP, teaching is a process of  creating `states' that are conducive to learning and facilitating learners' exploration and enrichment of their internal representations. It should be noted that one of the most important beliefs within NLP is that people use all senses to code experience internally. That is referred to as `internal representation'. NLP considers that verbal reports may account of people's inner experience. Therefore, when a person describes what they can `see in their mind's eye', the person is experiencing internal visual imagery. Internal imagery has applications in personal development (Glouberman 1989), psychotherapy, sports psychology and other disciplines. What NLP adds is a systematic model of distinctions within that imagery that is called `submodalities' (Bandler 1985; Bandler and MacDonald 1988). These  are thought to be related to physiological responses in the body. It is also an approach to how such images are connected in sequences of thought processes and related behaviour (Bandler & Grinder 1979).

According to  Paul Tosey and Jane Mathison (2003),

‘… teaching is about 'languaging' the content of the lesson, as it is about influencing the ways in which the knowledge is constructed, through communication’. This indicates that teachers need to be aware of the separation between the content of their topic, and the processes whereby the topic is to be learnt.

Churles and Terry (2007) supported that as far as teaching is concerned, mastery over interpersonal and intrapersonal skills is fundamental as well as the fact that it lies in our capacity to manage our internal responses and external behaviour. Regarding NLP, a wide range of NLP tools and specialized techniques are offered to teachers so that interpersonal and intrapersonal capacity as well as the management of emotions and more effective communication can be expanded (Churles and Terry, 2007). In an attempt to develop a better understanding of the learning process, many researchers have employed NLP techniques within a variety of domains and contexts. Varner, Jackson and colleagues (2013) used NLP tools to calculate the extent to which students’ self-explanations of complex science texts contained cohesive elements. Results show that better readers produced more cohesive self-explanations than less skilled readers. This indicates that automated indices of cohesion may potentially serve as a proxy for the coherence of students’ mental text representations. Additionally, Graesser and colleagues (2011) developed multiple components of text readability using NLP tools. Through the use of NLP tools, they were able to develop components that provide multidimensional information about texts and the specific properties that influence students’ ability to comprehend these texts successfully. Thus, NLP tools and techniques might contribute to students’ vocabulary learning. NLP has many applications in foreign language teaching and learning and more specifically in teaching grammar and vocabulary. Here is an activity found in the book titled ‘Handing Over’ by Jane Revel & Suzan Norman, pages 53-54

Title of the exercise: ‘Brainstormed emotions’

Aim of the activity : Brainstorm words to describe emotions

Write them randomly on the board. Alternatively, prepare an OHP. Ask students to identify (by calling out, writing down or highlighting):

• opposites and similes (e.g. ‘the opposite of boring’, or ‘any opposites you can find’)

• words of three (or four or two) syllables

• words which match a particular stress pattern (e.g. conceited oOo)

• words beginning with each letter of the alphabet in order (everyone calls out)

• words ending with different letters of the alphabet (you call out the letters)

• words which can either end -ed or -ing (e.g. excited/exciting)

• positive emotions (there may be some differences of opinion)

• words describing a temporary state, e.g. ‘tired’, rather than words which might describe someone’s personality, e.g. ‘optimistic’ (hopefully there will be a lot of differences o f opinion - see page 139 on ‘loosening labels’)

• words they already know and which they could use with confidence

• words containing particular sounds (e.g. ‘k’ - sarcastic, obnoxious)

• words which can make anagrams of one another (e.g. vile, evil)

dull                                 courageous                                   joyful                     depressed

       warm                   friendly                            refined                malicious                generous

boring              deceitful                impulsive           passionate                  afraid            clever

Weary                  uptight                       miserable                          hot-headed                          

fascinating                                      sarcastic                                          courageous

Suggested Activities:

-Choose 10 words to complete each of these sentences:

I would like to be more ... I would like to be less ...

-Look up in a dictionary 10 words you didn’t know. Translate them.

-Say each word in a way which expresses its meaning.

-Choose 10 words to draw in a way which expresses their meaning.

-Choose 10 words to complete each of these sentences:

People often feel... when ... I felt... when ...

-Choose three words you like the look of, three you like the sound of, three you

like the feel of, and three whose meaning you like.

There are many NLP techniques that have applications in foreign language learning. What an educator needs, is a familiarization in the NLP theory and techniques and a systematic and lifelong training in the Classroom Management and Student Needs. More specifically, the profile of an effective educator is created on the basis of a non stopping need to expand knowledge, be engaged in new teaching techniques and acquiring in-depth knowledge of the students’ unique needs when it comes to motivation and learning. A new teaching technique might appear to be fascinating for educators. What is of utmost important is for the educator to see whether this technique can be used in the EFL classroom and manages to achieve its aim.

Educators have to deal with the challenge of hosting a number of children of various emotional and educational needs in their classrooms. What is more, they have to find ways of overcoming any form of obstacle that blocks acquisition and creating new paths to knowledge by triggering internal motivation in every student. NLP techniques provide a multisensory approach to teaching and since it focuses on every person’s inner representational images, it is able to create strong neuro- associations in every person that give them the opportunity to both store and retrieve information more quickly and easier. Every method is made valuable in the hands of an effective teacher who remains focused on the art of teaching and uses/tests new ways to help students acquire knowledge easily.

The ultimate goal is to make students love learning, to make them enjoy the trip of knowledge and feel safe and respected in a friendly environment that provides holistic learning experiences.

References

Craft, A. (2001) `Neuro-linguistic Programming and Learning Theory', The Curriculum Journal Vol. 12 No. 1 pp. 125 - 136

Dilts, R. (2000) Encyclopedia of Systemic NLP Capitola, CA.: Meta Publications

Dunn D, Halonen J, Smith R (2008). Teaching Critical Thinking in Psychology. Wiley-Blackwell.

Fauconnier, G. (1997) Mappings in Thought and Language Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press

Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M., (2002) The Way We Think: conceptual blending and the mind's hidden complexities New York: Basic Books

Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., & Trow, M. (1994) The New Production of Knowledge London: Sage

Grimley, Bruce (2013). Theory and Practice of NLP Coaching: A Psychological Approach (1st ed.). London: Sage Publications Ltd.

Hager, Michael (1990) `Using Neuro-linguistic Programming to learn vocabulary', Praxis des neusprachlichen Unterrichts Vol. 37 no. 1 pp. 59 - 61

Johnson, M. (1987) The Body in the Mind: the bodily basis of meaning, imagination and reason Chicago: the University of Chicago Press

Lee, A. (1993) `Outdoor education and Neuro-linguistic programming', Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership Vol. 10 no. 4 pp. 16 - 17

Lyall, D (2002) `NLP in Training: the power to facilitate' Training Journal November 2002, pp. 12 - 19.

Poffel, Stephen A. & Cross, Herbert J. (1985) `Neurolinguistic programming: A test of the eye-movement hypothesis', Perceptual and Motor Skills Vol 61 no.3 p. 1262

Revel, J., Norman, S (1999) ‘Handing Over’ UK: Saffire Press

Robbie, E. (2000) `The ordering principle of the meta model of NLP', NLP World 7(3) 25 - 66.

Sandhu, Daya Singh (1994) `Suggestopedia and Neurolinguistic Programming: introduction to whole brain teaching and psychotherapy', Journal of Accelerative Learning and Teaching Vol. 19. No. 3 pp. 229 - 240

Thompson J.E., Courtney L. & Dickson D. (2002) `The effect of neurolinguistic programming on organisational and individual performance: a case study' Journal of European Industrial Training, 24 August 2002, vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 292-298

Tosey, P. & Mathison, J., (2006) "Introducing Neuro-Linguistic Programming Centre for Management Learning & Development, School of Management, University of Surrey.

Tosey, P. & Mathison, J. (2002) `Mapping Transformative Learning: a neuro-linguistic programming perspective', Paper presented at Living Spirit: New Dimensions in Work and Learning, conference at the University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK, July 2002

Tosey, P. and Mathison, J.(2003) `Neuro-linguistic Programming and Learning Theory: a response', The Curriculum Journal Vol. 14 no.3 pp. 361 - 378

Εάν σου δείξω την ζωγραφιά μου, θα 'διαβάσεις' την ψυχή μου”

Τα παιδιά αποθέτουν σημάδια, σήματα , μηνύματα. Κάθε μέρα καινούργια. Αυτό γίνεται μέσω της γλώσσας (ομιλία), του σώματος, με τη σχηματική διαμόρφωση-την εικόνα.

Το ερώτημα είναι: Μπορούν οι μεγάλοι να αντιληφθούν , να αναγνωρίσουν και να ασχοληθούν με σεβασμό και αγάπη με αυτά; Ο πρώτος εκφραστικός τρόπος του παιδιού είναι η κίνηση. Το βρέφος εκφράζεται-ανοίγει την καρδιά του – κλωτσώντας με τα πόδια του, κουνώντας τα χέρια του και στρέφοντας το κεφάλι του. Αργότερα συνοδεύει τις δραστηριότητες του με άναρθρες φωνούλες, κραυγές, γέλιο. Η χαρά του δείχνει διάθεση κοινωνικοποίησης , εκφράζει με αυτό τον τρόπο την άνεση ή τη δυσαρέσκεια του.

Το παιδί ξεφωνίζει όταν πεινάει και γυρίζει το κεφάλι του όταν έχει χορτάσει ή δεν έχει διάθεση επικοινωνίας. Ευχάριστα καθώς και δυσάρεστα αισθήματα μετατρέπονται σε κινήσεις. Στη συνέχεια το παιδί αρχίζει το παιχνίδι. Τα τελευταία χρόνια αρκετοί επιστήμονες από διάφορους χώρους έχουν στρέψει το ενδιαφέρον τους στην κατανόηση της παιδικής ζωγραφιάς. Πρέπει να επισημανθεί αρχικά ότι το να σχεδιάζεις και να ζωγραφίζεις είναι μια πολύ προσωπική υπόθεση. Κάθε εικόνα αντικατοπτρίζει χαρακτηριστικά της προσωπικότητας του δημιουργού της. Ή και αντίστροφα. Η ερμηνεία ενός σχεδίου έχει πάντα να κάνει με την άποψη , την θέση του παρατηρητή. Με αυτόν τον τρόπο η κάθε εικόνα επιτρέπει διάφορα συμπεράσματα. Η απλή σχηματική ερμηνεία των συμβόλων είναι ανεύθυνη όπως και μια ερμηνεία που στερείται το ιστορικό φόντο και την διαδικασία που οδήγησε στην δημιουργία της.

Η ερμηνεία των συμβόλων δεν μπορεί να υπόκειται σε σταθερούς κανόνες. Ένα σύμβολο μπορεί να είναι γενικό , καθολικό. Η σημασία του όμως είναι προσωπική. Οι ζωγραφιές μπορούν να μας επιβεβαιώσουν αυτά που ήδη γνωρίζουμε. Αποσπασμένες από τις σχέσεις τους μπορούν να μας παραπλανήσουν(DiLeo, 1992). Σε αυτό το σημείο δημιουργείται το ερώτημα «πώς μπορούμε να προσεγγίσουμε τις αλήθειες που είναι κρυμμένες στις ζωγραφιές των παιδιών?» Αρχικά πρέπει να γίνει μια διείσδυση στην εικόνα και να τεθούν ερωτήματα και προβληματισμοί. Για να εμβαθύνουμε στην εικόνα χρειάζεται υπομονή , συμ-πάθεια και ζωηρό ενδιαφέρον. Θα πρέπει να λάβουμε υπόψιν μας τις συνθήκες ζωής του παιδιού, το πλέγμα των σχέσεων στην οικογένεια και το σχολείο. Θα πρέπει να λάβουμε επίσης υπόψη τις εσωτερικές συγκρούσεις του παιδιού που ζωγραφίζει. Ακόμη και η παρατήρηση της συμπεριφοράς του παιδιού την ώρα που ζωγραφίζει παίζει σημαντικό ρόλο στην ερμηνεία της ζωγραφιάς. Σβησίματα με γομολάστιχα ή όποιο άλλο τρόπο διαγραφής αποτελούν ενδεχομένως ένδειξη συγκρούσεων και ανεκπλήρωτων επιθυμιών. Σύμφωνα με τον Furth,1991,  οι σημαντικότερες ερωτήσεις όταν πρωτοκοιτάζει κάποιος μια ζωγραφιά είναι :

-Ποιο συναίσθημα μου προκαλεί αυτή η εικόνα;

-Ποια «παράδοξα» βλέπω που πρέπει να αναγνωρίσω;

-Τι υπάρχει στο επίκεντρο;

-Τι λείπει;

-Ποια εμπόδια (αναστολές) υπάρχουν που πρέπει να αποκαλυφθούν;

-Τι μέγεθος, σχήμα και κατεύθυνση κίνησης έχουν τα αντικείμενα που παρουσιάζονται στην εικόνα;

-Υπάρχουν παραλείψεις, επισκιάσεις, πράγματα αποκομμένα, περικλεισμένα, υπογραμμισμένα, διαφανή γραψίματα στο πίσω μέρος της εικόνας; Υπάρχουν παραμορφωμένες μορφές;

-Τι επαναλαμβάνεται ξανά και ξανά;

Όλα αυτά πρέπει να τα «βλέπει» κανείς πάντα στο επίπεδο ανάπτυξης του παιδιού στη συγκεκριμένη στιγμή , να αποδέχεται την ατομικότητά του, να ενδιαφέρεται για το παρελθόν του παιδιού που ζωγραφίζει καθώς και τις σημερινές σχέσεις της ζωής του. Η κατανομή των στοιχείων της εικόνας στο χώρο , τα χρώματα και τα υλικά που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν είναι εξίσου σημαντικά. Ωστόσο, ο Furth, 1991, επισημαίνει ότι σε όλα αυτά δεν είναι δυνατόν να γίνονται γενικεύσεις. Σύμφωνα με τον Furth, 1991, μια ζωγραφιά μπορεί να αντικατοπτρίζει τη ζωή ενός ατόμου. Είναι γεμάτη ή άδεια; Πόσος χώρος έχει χρησιμοποιηθεί; Μια γεμάτη εικόνα θα μπορούσε να δείχνει δύναμη ζωής ή να εκφράζει την επιθυμία για αυτή.

Οι τοποθετήσεις των στοιχείων στα άκρα θα μπορούσε να ερμηνευτεί ως ένα ξεχώρισμα του ατόμου από τους άλλους. Είναι πολύ σημαντικό να αποφεύγουμε τα γρήγορα συμπεράσματα. Πρέπει να δίνουμε στα παιδιά τον χρόνο να ακολουθούν τον δικό τους ρυθμό και να αναπτύσσουν τη δική τους εικαστική γλώσσα. Δεν πρέπει να τους υποδεικνύουμε πώς να ζωγραφίζουν και το πιο σημαντικό να μην τα κρίνουμε. Σύμφωνα με τον Strauss, « το παιδί φαντασιοσκοπεί. Η ψυχή του παίζει με αυτό που βίωσε και θυμάται. Με αυτό τον τρόπο δημιουργείται ένα διηγηματικό – εικονογραφικό στοιχείο. Συναντάμε διάφορα επίπεδα βιωματικής ζωής: ό,τι έχει παρατηρήσει ξύπνιο και ό,τι έχει νιώσει στα όνειρά του. Αυτά που είδε και αυτά που ένιωσε βρίσκονται συχνά άμεσα αντιμέτωπα. Οι ζωγραφιές εικονογραφούν μεταβολές και διαστρωματώσεις των πιο ποικίλων περιοχών (κύκλων) της αντίληψης.»

Οι ζωγραφιές των παιδιών μας δείχνουν πώς βλέπουν τον κόσμο, τις σχέσεις και τις αναφορές τους. Μέσα από αυτές φαίνεται ολόκληρο το διανθρώπινο πλέγμα με όλες του τις δυσκολίες σε επιτυχία και αποτυχία, λύπη και χαρά. Το μόνο που χρειάζεται είναι να είμαστε ανοιχτοί στην αποκωδικοποίηση της πληροφορίας  που μας στέλνουν και χωρίς απολυτότητα και κριτική διάθεση να τα αφήνουμε να μας  ταξιδέψουν στον μαγικό κόσμο της ψυχής τους.

'Differentiated Instruction and differentiated assessment serving as teaching aids in an inclusive classroom' by Dr Theodora Papadopoulou

Differentiated Instruction and differentiated assessment serving as teaching aids in an inclusive classroom

“…differentiation can show us how to teach the same standard to a range of

learners by employing a variety of teaching and learning modes.”                                                                                                                    

                                                                                                (Tomlinson 2000)

Differentiated instruction is an approach to teaching and organizing a classroom that respects each learner and provides a variety of learning opportunities. All students can meet success since it enables them to access information through multiple paths, understand it deeply and produce an effective output. Tomlinson (2005), defines differentiated instruction as a philosophy of teaching that is based on the premise that students learn best when their teachers accommodate the differences in their readiness levels, interests and learning profiles. A main objective of differentiated instruction is to take full advantage of every student’s ability to learn (Tomlinson, 2001a, 2001c, 2004c, 2005).

She also points out that differentiating can be performed in a variety of ways. Tomlinson (2000) argues that differentiation is not just an instructional strategy, nor is it a recipe for teaching. It is an innovative way of thinking about teaching and learning.

According to Tomlinson (2003), there are four areas in which differentiation can occur:

1. the learning environment
2. the content of the curriculum,
3. the process through which children engage in the learning activities,

and

4. the product or demonstration of what has been learned.

The learning environment includes the overall layout of the classroom and the way the classroom space is used.  All these alterations ensure that the classroom is a supportive and comfortable place that helps all students enjoy learning in a welcoming environment. Regarding the process of instruction and students’ interaction, it may involve collaborative learning activities, tiered assignments, learning centres, learning logs, individual goal-setting, changing the pace or delivery of instruction, and using visual and verbal cueing. Last but not least it involves allowing different students to work at different speeds.

It should be noted that curriculum differentiation is determined by the students’ readiness level, interests, and learning profile.

Planning for differentiated instruction involves making informed decisions about the learning environment, determining instructional time, designing appropriate content, materials and resources and finally implementing instructional strategies and evaluating procedures. All these make differentiated instruction a proactive, flexible and student-centered approach.

We should bear in mind that differentiated instruction is an umbrella concept. It incorporates research results on the brain (Greenleaf, 2003), learning styles, multiple intelligences, constructivism, and differentiated assessment into practice in the classroom.

‘Flexibility’ is the key word in a differentiated classroom. The curriculum is followed in a variety of instructional strategies. Every student is engaged in the same general content while interacting with the learning goal at his/her own pace. The differentiated classroom teacher acts as a coach, guiding the learning process and monitoring students’ progress by offering guidance and support.  The teacher works with students individually or in small groups.

Differentiated instruction respects each student as a learner. This requires knowing each student’s interests, strengths, and academic challenges. Another important part of differentiated instruction is that it takes into account that students learn differently. Therefore, they need a variety of guidance and support (Chapman, C. & Gregory, G.H., 2007) 

By implementing differentiated instruction, all learners are helped to reach their potential.

Differentiated assessment is a process of evaluation where the teacher collects information and data before, during, and after instruction. This process ensures success for all the students. It enables the teacher to have an overall view of students’ achievement. It is important that the assessment is authentic since it offers students a variety of tasks to prove their knowledge (Chapman & King, 2012). Differentiated assessment supports the learning process since it helps teachers identify and begin to address students’ strengths and needs. It is ongoing and responsive process that changes over the course of a unit in response to students’ growth and development. It serves multiple purposes:

a.      assessment for instructional planning,

b.      assessment for learning and

c.       assessment of  learning.

Differentiated instruction and differentiated assessment meet the principles of special education since individualised teaching is incorporated in group teaching in a mixed ability classroom. Every student’s learning needs are taken into account and act as an initial point in the adaptation of the curriculum (Bender, W.N., 2002). Students learn to appreciate differentiation, learn at their own pace and understand through practice that one student’s output can be another student’s input (Benati, 2005).

Every student has a range of abilities, needs and interests. Differentiated instruction is any instructional strategy that recognizes and supports individual differences in learning. It maximizes learning by taking into consideration each student’s’ individual and cultural learning styles. It respects the fact that some students may require adjusted instruction and offers different ways for students to explore curriculum. Differentiated instruction facilitates learning since it helps teachers create learning situations that match students’ current abilities and preferred learning styles while stretching their abilities and encouraging them to experience new ways of learning. 

It provides both teachers and students with unique teaching and learning experiences. What reassures the success of such teaching approach is, apart from knowledge, the belief that every student is a potentially successful one who seeks opportunities to develop his/her abilities.

References

Beecher, M., & Sweeny, S. (2008, March 1). Closing the Achievement Gap with Curriculum Enrichment and Differentiation: One School's Story. Journal of Advanced Academics, 19(3), 502-530.

Benati, A. (2005).The effects of processing instruction, Traditional instruction and meaning-output instruction On the acquisition of the English past  simple tense. Language Teaching Research, 9, 67-93.

Bender W. N., & Larkin, M. J. (2003). Reading strategies for elementary

students with learning difficulties. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Brooks, J. G. (2004). To see beyond the lesson. Educational Leadership, 62(1), 8-12.

Chapman, C. & Gregory, G.H., (2007) Differentiated instructional strategies: One size doesn't fit all, second edition. Thousand Oaks. California: Corwin Press.

Chapman, C. & King, R., (2012). Differentiated assessment strategies: One tool doesn’t fit all, second edition. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

Douglas, D. (2004). Self-advocacy: Encouraging students to become partners in differentiation. Roeper Review, 26, 223-227.

Flem, A., Moen, T., and Gudmundsdottir, S. (2000). Towards inclusive schools: a study of how a teacher facilitated differentiated instruction. Paper presented at the ECER Conference, Edinburgh.

Forsten, C., Grant, J., and Hollas, B. (2002). Differentiated Instruction. Different Strategies for Different Learners. Peterborough: Crystal Springs Books.

Greenleaf, R. (2003). The servant leader within: A transformative path. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press.

Lawrence-Brown, D. (2004). Differentiated instruction: Inclusive strategies for standards based learning that benefit the whole class. American Secondary Education, 32(3), 34-62.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2000a). The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of all Learners. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2000b). Reconciliable differences. Educational Leadership, 58(1), 6-11.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001b). Grading for success. Educational Leadership, 58(6), 12-15.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001c). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed Ability Classrooms (2^nd ed.). Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2002). Different learners different lessons. Instructor, 112(2), 21-25.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2003). Deciding to teach them all. Educational Leadership, 61(2), 6-11.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2004a). Differentiation in diverse settings. School Administrator, 61(7), 28-33.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2004b). Research evidence for differentiation. School Administrator, 61(7), 30.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2004c). Sharing responsibility for differentiating instruction. Roeper Review, 26(4), 188-200.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2005). Grading and differentiation: Paradox or good practice? Theory into Practice, 44(3), 262-269.